The individualsdwellingwithin the stone copper age in south-eastern Rajasthan

The individuals dwelling within the stone-copper age in south-eastern Rajasthan, western Madhya Pradesh and western Maharashtra domesticated animals and cultivated foodgrains, They stored cows, sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes, and hunted deer. Stays of the carnal have additionally been discovered. It isn’t clear whether or not they had been acquainted with the horse.

Some animal ; crams are recognized as belonging both to the horse or donkey or wild ass, Individuals actually ate beef, however they didn’t take pork on any appreciable scale. What’s exceptional is that these individuals produced wheat and rice. Along with these staple crops in addition they cultivated bajra.

They produced a number of pulses such because the lentil (masur), black gram, inexperienced gram, and giass pea, Every one of these foodgrains have been discovered at Navdatoli located on the financial institution of the Narmada in Maharashtra. Maybe at no different place in India so many coreals have , been found on account of digging. The individuals of Navdatoli additionally produced ber and linseed. Cotton was produced within the black cotton soil of the Deccan, and ragi, bajra and a number of other millets had been cultivated within the decrease Deccan.

In jap India fish hooks have been present in Bihar and West Bengal, the
place we additionally discover
rice. This means that the individuals
belonging to the stone-coppei section within the jap areas lived on fish and rice, which continues
to be a preferred weight-reduction
plan in that a part of the nation.

The chalcolithic individuals had been usually not acquainted

The chalcolithic individuals had been usually not acquainted with burnt bricks, which had been seldom used. Often their homes had been manufactured from mud bricks, however principally these had been constructed with wattle and daub, and appear to have been thatched homes. At Inamgaon, within the earlier chalcolithic section in western Maharashtra, giant mud homes with ovens, and round pit homes, have been found. Within the later section (1300-1000 B.C ) we’ve got a home with 5 rooms, 4 rectangular and one round. This may recommend that households had been giant. Settlements be-came secure and widespread on this phases, which is named the Jorwe tradition.

The tradition is so referred to as, as a result of its type-site is offered by Jorwe, a village located on the Pravaia river. A superb variety of websites possess the tiaits of the Jorwe tradition Each Jorwe village was a nucleated settlement with greater than 35 homes of various sizes, round oi rectangular in form The chalcolithic financial system due to this fact was a village financial system, Some settlements, equivalent to Inamgaon and people at Eran and Cayatha m central and western Madhya Pradesh, had been fortified and surrounded by a moat, however it’s apparent that these individuals had no city civilization.

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to Bulgaria.

The New Stone Age Though on the planet context the New Stone

Age started a lot earlier, in 7000 B.C., neolithic settlements within the
Indian sub-continent usually are not older than 6000 B.C. Some settlements
present in south India and japanese India are as late as 1000 B.C.,

The individuals of this age used instruments and implements of polished
stone. They significantly used stone axes, which have been present in laige
numbers all through the better a part of the nation, _ This chopping instrument
was put to varied makes use of by the individuals, and in historical legends
Parasurama turned an vital axe- wielding hero

Based mostly on the varieties of axes utilized by neolithic settlers, we discover three vital areas of neolithic settlements. One space is to be discovered within the north within the valley of Kashmir at a spot referred to as Burzahom at a distance of about 20 km from Srinagar. The neolithic individuals lived there on a plateau in pits, and doubtless had a hunt-* ing and fishing economic system.

They didn’t appear to have been acquainted with agriculture or domestication of animals. They used not solely polished tools- of stone, however what’s extra attention-grabbing, they used quite a few instruments and weapons made from bone. The one different place which has yielded appreciable bone implements in India is Chirand, which is 40 km west of Patna On the northern aspect of the Ganga. These bone implements have been’present in a late neolithic setup in an space with about 100 cm rainfall. The settlement turned potential due to the open land out there on account of the becoming a member of collectively of 4 rivers, Ganga, Son, Gandak aDd Gha- ghra at this1 place

The
individuals of Burzahom used coarse gray pottery

The individuals of Burzahom used coarse gray pottery. It’s interesting1
that the Burzahom home canine had been buried with their masters of their
gravest Pit dwelling and the inserting of home canine within the graves of the
masters don’t appear to be the apply with neolithic individuals in another a
part of India. The earliest date for Burzahom is about 2400 B.C., however the
bones recovered from Chirand can’t be dated sooner than 1600 B.C. and so they
probably belong to a stone-copper part.

The second gioup of neolithic individuals lived in south India south of the
Godavari river. They often settled on the tops of granite lulls or on plateaus
close to the river banks, They used stone axes and in addition some sort of
stone blades Fireplace- baked earthen collectible figurines counsel that they
saved’a lot of cattle. They possessed cattle, sheep and goats. They used
rubbing stone querns, which exhibits that they had been acquainted with the
artwork of manufacturing grains

The Center Outdated Stone Age or Center Palaeolithic industries

The Center Outdated Stone Age or Center Palaeolithic industries are all
based mostly upon flakes. These flakes are discovered in numerous elements of
India and present regional variations. The principal instruments are sorts of
scrapers manufactured from flakes. We additionally discover a lot of borers and
blade-like instruments The Center Outdated Stone Age websites in India are
discovered within the Soan Valley Right here we discover a crude pebble
business m strata modern with the third Himalayan glaciation. The artifacts of
this age are additionally discovered at a number of locations on the river
Narmada, and likewise at a number of locations south of the Tungabhadra river.

The Higher Palaeolithic section was much less humid. It coincided with the
final section of the Ice Age when local weather grew to become comparatively
heat On the earth context it’s identified for the looks of recent flint
industries and of males of the fashionable kind. In India we discover the usage
of blades and burins which have been present in Andhra, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Bhopal and Chota- nagpur plateau. Caves and rockshelters to be used by human
beings within the Higher Palaeolithic section have been found at Bhimbetka, 40
kms south of Bhopal Hand-axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and some burins
have been discovered there. An Higher Palaeolithic’assemblage, characterised by
large flakes, blades, burins and scrapers has additionally been discovered
within the higher ranges of the Gujarat dunes.

It’s tough to estimate the beginnings of the Palaeolithic Age, It’s stated
that on the planet context human stays related to stone instruments are as
outdated as three 5 million years. However it appears that evidently by a
number of levels the fashionable human being (Homo sapiens) first appeared
within the Higher Palaeolithic Age.

It could thus seem that the palaeolithic websites are present in virtually
all elements of the nation besides the alluvial plains of the Indus and the
Ganga.

The Late Stone Age

The Higher Palaeolithic Age got here to an finish with the tip of the Ice
Age round 8000 B C , and the local weather grew to become heat and dry.
Climatte modifications btought about modifications in fauna and flora and made
it attainable for human beings to maneuver to new areas Since then there
haven’t been any main modifications in weather conditions. From 8000 B.C.
started an intermediate stage in stone age tradition, which is known as the
Mesolithic Age. It intervened as a transitional section between the
Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age, and can be known as the
Late Stone Age. Within the case of India it began about 8000 B C, and continued
u.p to about 4000 B C.

The attribute instruments of the Late Stone Age are microliths. The Late
Stone Age websites are present in good numbers in Chotanagpur, central India,
and likewise south of the river Krishna.

Thus far just a few finds of the Late Stone Age have been dated
scientifically, however there isn’t a doubt that these finds preceded the
Neoli- ‘thic Age.

It’s attention-grabbing to notice that on the northern spurs of the
Vindhyas within the Bdan Valley all of the three phases of the Palaeolithic
adopted by the Mesolithic after which by the Neolithic have been present in
sequence.

The Later Vedic Section: Transition to State and Social Formation

Enlargement
within the Later Vedic Interval 1000-600 BC

The histoiy of the later Vedic period is predicated primarily on the Vedic texts which woie compiled after the age of the Rig Veda, The collections of the Vedic hymns or mantias wore referred to as the Samhitas The Rig Veda Samhiia is the oldest Vedic textual content, on the premise of which we now have described the early Vedic age. For functions of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda weie sat to tune, and this modified collection1 was referred to as the Sama Veda Samhita, Along with the Sama Veda, in post-Rig Vedic occasions two different collections had been composed These had been’ the Yajur Veda Samhita and the Atharva Veda Samhita The Yajur Veda accommodates not solely hymns but additionally rituals which must accompany their recitation.

The rituals mirror the social and political milieu m which they arose. The Athaiva Veda accommodates chaims and spells to keep off evils and illnesses Its contents throw gentle on the beliefs and practices of the non- Aryans. The Vedic Samhitas had been adopted by the composition of a collection of texts referred to as the Br’ahmanas.

These are filled with ntualistic formulae and’ clarify the social and spiritual elements of rituals’ All these later Vedic texts had been compiled within the higher Gangetic basin in circa 1000-600 B C Within the Similar interval and within the’similar space, digging and exploration have dropped at gentle practically 500 websites inhabited for the primary time, These are’ called1 Painted Gray Ware (PGW) websites as a result of they had been inhabited by individuals who used earthen bowls and dishes fabricated from painted gray pottery In addition they used iron weapons. With the’ mixed proof from the later Vedic texts and PGW iron-phase archaeology We will kind an thought of the lifetime of the individuals within the first half of the primary millennium B C. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining areas of Panjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, “ The texts present that the Aryans expanded ‘from 1 Paujab over the entire of1 western

Uttar Pradesh lined by the
Ganga-Yarauna

Uttar Pradesh lined by the Ganga-Yarauna doab The Bharatas and Purus, the 2 major-** tribes, mixed and thus fashioned the individuals At first’ fhdy Tived between the Sarasvati and the Drishadvati simply On the perimeter of the doab. Quickly the Kurus occupied Delhi and the higher portion of the doab, the world known as Kurukshetra or the land of the Kurus Regularly they coalesced with a individuals known as the Panchalas, who occupied the center portion of the doab The authority of the Kuru- Panehala individuals unfold over Delhi and the higher and center components of the doab.

They arrange their capital at Hastinapur located within the district of Meerut. The historical past of the Kuru tribe is vital for the battle of the Bharata, which is the principle theme of the good epic known as the Mahabharata.

This battle is meant to have been fought round 950 B.C. between the Kauravas and the Pandavas, though each of them belonged to the Kuru clan In consequence virtually the entire of the Kuru clan was worn out.

The Jama texts had been Witten in Prakrit

The Jama texts have been Witten in Prakrit and had been lastly compiled
within the sixth centuiy A.D in Valabhi m Gujarat They nonetheless comprise
many passages which assist us to lcconstiuct the political historical past of
japanese Uttar Pradesh and Bihar within the age of Mahavira The Jaina texts
refer repeatedly to tiade and tradeLS.

We have now additionally a big physique of secular literatme. To this class
belong the law-books known as the Dharnmsutias and Smutis, which along with
their commentaries aic known as Dhaimasastias The Dhaimaxutias had been
compiled in 500-200 B,C , and the principal Smritis had been codified LIT Lhe
first SIX centuries of the Christian period They lay down the duties for
dilfeicnt varnas in addition to foi kings and Lheu officers. They prescribe the
lules accoidmg to which propel ty is to be held, bought and inherited.
Additionally they piescribe punishments lbi individuals responsible of theft,
assault, muidci, adulteiy, and many others

An impoi tant law-book is the Arthasastia of Kaulilya The textual content
is split into fifteen books, of which Books II and III could also be regaidcd
as of an earliei date They appear to have been the work of various palms. This
texL was put in its last kind at first of the Christian period, however its
earliest parts leflect the state of society and economic system m the age of
the Mauiyas It gives lich materials for the examine of historic Indian polity
and economic system.

We additionally
possess the works of Bhasa Kalidasa and Banabhatta

We additionally possess the works of Bhasa, Kalidasa, and Banabhatta. Other
than then literary worth, they mirror the situations of the instances to which
these wiiteis belonged The works of Kalidasa comprise kavyevs and dramas,
essentially the most well-known of which is the Abhijncmasakuntcifain, Moreover
being nice cieative compositions, they piovidc us with glimpses of the social
and cultural lifetime of northern and central India within the ,age of the
Guptas

Along with Sanskrit sources we have now a few of the earliest Tamil texts
discovered within the corpus of the Sangam literature. This was produced over a
interval of three to 4 centuries by poets who assembled in schools patronised
by kings.

Since such a literary meeting was known as sangam, the entire literature is
called the Sangam literature The compilation of the corpus is attributed to the
primary fouL Chustian centuries, though last compilations might have been
accomplished by the sixth centuiy. The Sangam literature is a really main
supply of our info for the social, financial and political lifetime of the
individuals residing in deltaic Tamil Nadu within the early Christian centimes
What it says about commerce and commerce is attested by international accounts
and archaeological finds.

The Ottoman Empire clad in native attire

The attention pays immediate homage to each grasp of the Ottoman Empire
clad in native attire. However when the determine of Mahomet the Reformer, who
swept away the janissaries and different previous establishments, is seen
wearing European garments (apart from the pink fez), one reads there the signal
that the glory of the Home of Othman was on the wane. The dread and majesty by
which the Turk was previously hedged spherical have vanished.

Inside the reminiscence of males nonetheless residing, eunuchs carried swords to chastise indiscreet admirers of Oriental beauties, and didn’t hesitate to slash a European responsible of casting lengthy, lingering appears to be like upon the truthful feces. It was forbidden, inside days that one remembers, to cross the imperial palace on horseback or with an umbrella opened.

So strictly was the rule enforced, that even the “ Nice Elchi,” Sir Stratford Canning, using by the palace, was as soon as compelled to dismount from his horse. This proved an excessive amount of for the good man. Livid on the indignity, he despatched immediately for his dragoman, demanded an instantaneous viewers of the Sultan, and obtained the order which put an finish to the humiliating customized.

It’s not, nonetheless, among the many Turkish inhabitants alone marked
change in costume has occurred. Inside the reminiscence of residing
individuals, Armenian and Jewish ladies appeared in public carrying distinctive
veils. Dishevelled trousers, head-kerchiefs, placing colors, embroidered
jackets, turbans, have been in vogue among the many non-Moslem inhabitants,
making the scenes within the streets kaleidoscopic, and furnishing additionally
a prepared means whereby to determine the nationalities that appeared
inextricably mingled collectively. It’s stunning how a resident of
Constantinople can recognise the nationality of the peoples he meets, even
since a typical type of costume has come into trend. However in days not very
distant, each native wore his nation upon his sleeve. His costume was the badge
of his race and folks. Now, the order of the day is “okay la Franca.”

Once more, what a change has come over the type of constructing within the
place. The palaces of the Sultan are ‘on European fashions.

Fascinating primitiveness and
fancifulness of the Orient

The day has vanished, when to go up or down the Bosporus was to maneuver via a scene wherein the charms of nature have been heightened by the fascinating primitiveness and fancifulness of the Orient The massive old style Turkish home, nearly nothing however tales of home windows, painted deep pink, or left to imagine the pure gray of the wooden, with broad eaves below which small attic home windows, crammed with little diamond-shaped panes of glass nestled, have disappeared, or are quick falling into decay.

Venetian shutters are changing the latticed screens, which invested a Turkish house with a lot thriller; conservatories have taken the room of the previous green-houses of orange-trees and lemon- timber. And, worst of all, boats of European type are supplanting the caique, so mild, so sleek, floating upon the water like a seabird, and making the Bosporus appear a stream in fairyland.

enetian shutters are changing the latticed screens, which invested a Turkish house with a lot thriller; conservatories have taken the room of the previous green-houses of orange-trees and lemon- timber. And, worst of all, boats of European type are supplanting the caique, so mild, so sleek, floating upon the water like a seabird, and making the Bosporus appear a stream in fairyland.

Ships of all sizes and of every kind, European and Oriental

In an hour, 100, 200, vessels would possibly move a given level, all
panting to succeed in the open sea earlier than the wind failed, and racing
each other to get there first. Ships of all sizes and of each kind, European
and Oriental, sails and rigging of each model; large three masted merchantmen,
“ seigniors and wealthy burghers on the flood,’ schooners, brigs, barges,
caiques, “ petty traffickers,” with their white wings stretched over the blue
waters, from one inexperienced financial institution throughout to the
opposite, flew earlier than the wind, and shaped a spectacle solemn and stately
as a royal or spiritual ceremonial. It was an impressive scene of color,
movement, and number of kind; of eagerness and achievement

England
to Constantinople a crusing vessel took normally thirty to sixty days

After we consider the technique of communication with the outer world, the change is extraordinary. For the voyage from England to Constantinople a crusing vessel took normally thirty to sixty days. It could be even three months, as an Englishman nonetheless dwelling within the metropolis discovered, in 1845, in his personal case. To-day one travels by rail to London in three and a half days. Letters from England took ten days. There was a weekly European mail vid Trieste, and 3 times a month vid Marseilles. Now, a European mail arrives each day.

The postage on a letter was Is. 4cL the place now it’s 2£d. It’s not possible to magnify the affect upon the lifetime of the place attributable to this shut connection by steamship and by rail with the Western world. The Ottoman authorities weren’t altogether mistaken, from their standpoint, after they seemed with disfavour upon the junction of the railroads in Turkey with the European railway system. That junction, it was thought, would facilitate the navy invasion of the nation. However concepts journey by rail, in addition to troopers.

And the invasion of a rustic by new concepts could have penalties as formidable and far-reaching as any that arms can introduce. The completion of the railroad between Constantinople and Vienna in 1888 could also be considered the conquest of the town by international thought and enterprise.

Little, maybe, did the crowds, that gathered on the Stamboul railway station on the 14th of August in that yr to witness the arrival of the primary practice from the Austrian capital, recognize the importance of that occasion However it was the annexation of Constantinople to the Western world. New concepts, new fashions now rule, for higher and for worse. And shortly the defects and the charms of the previous Oriental metropolis might be a dream of the previous.

Romanus from one finish of Stamboul to the opposite

Nowhere, maybe, is the mark of change extra evident than in respect to the technique of communication, whether or not within the metropolis or on the straits. Lengthy traces of tramways run from the Galata Bridge to the Golden Gate and the Gate of S. Romanus, from one finish of Stamboul to the opposite. Alongside the railway that varieties the freeway to Europe, there are 5 stations inside the metropolis limits for the lodging of the districts beside the observe.

The sedan chairs wherein girls have been normally carried, in making calls, at the moment are often employed to convey them to and from night events. The teams of horses standing at con-venient factors within the nice thoroughfares to hold you up a road of steps or to a distant quarter, with the surudji, change in hand, working beside you to Urge the animal onward and to take it again on the shut of your journey, have given technique to cabstands, and to a tunnel that pierces the hill of Galata. A tramway carries one by means of Galata and Pera as far out because the suburb of Chichli, whereas one other line runs near the shore from the Inside Bridge to Ortakeui.

There are individuals nonetheless residing who bear in mind the primary steamer that plied on the Bosporus, within the forties of final century. Its major occupation was to tug ships up or down the straits; however as soon as a day, in summer time, it conveyed passengers between town and the villages of Therapia and Buyukderd A second steamer quickly adopted, and charged eleven piasters for the journey every manner.

Owing, nonetheless, to the opposition of the caiquedjis, the steamer couldn’t moor on the quay, in order that passengers have been obliged to embark and disembark at each ends of the journey in caiques, on the fee of 1 piaster every manner. Thus a return journey, which now prices one shilling and eight pence, concerned an expense of 4 shillings and 4 pence.

Undervalues
some great benefits of steam navigation

Nobody, after all, undervalues some great benefits of steam navigation, or suggests a return to crusing ships. On the identical time it stays true, that by no means once more will males see the Bosporus so lovely because it appeared in days when its waters have been untroubled by steam. Owing to the prevalence of northerly winds in these areas, ships certain for the Black Sea have been liable to lengthy detention on their manner up from the Mediterranean.

Nice fleets of merchantmen have been accordingly apt to gather within the Dardanelles and within the Golden Horn, ready for a beneficial breeze. That they had typically to attend six weeks ere they may stir. When at size the south wind did come, each sew of canvas the ships might carry was unfurled, and an immense procession of winged sea-coursers and chariots rode by means of the Bosporus day after day as long as the south wind blew.

Impression of the townat this time

A lot has been written about Constantinople in
its Turkish character, that to say something totally recent and new upon the topic is unimaginable. The
reader should, due to this fact,
look to the illustrations which adorn this work for the impression which the
Oriental facet of the town
makes upon a creative eye. If the
author of the textual content ventures to
repeat some elements of a widely
known story, it’s only
as a result of other ways
of telling an outdated story differ
the factors of view from which the matter is
regarded, carry totally
different options into reduction,
and set them in one other environment
and color; as the looks
of the identical panorama
modifications, in accordance
as it’s seen at daybreak,
or at midday, or by the sunshine
of the setting solar.

Bridge that spans the Golden Horn from Galata to Stamboul

Talking of the bridge that spans the Golden Horn from Galata to Stamboul, De Amicis remarks that; “ the place every single day 100 thousand folks cross, not one concept passes in ten years. ” The slowness with which the East modifications is, maybe, the impression which the spectacle of life in Constantinople naturally makes upon the thoughts of a stranger. His consideration is arrested by the variations between the scenes he observes for the primary time and the scenes with which he’s acquainted. A recent eye is fast to detect distinctions and peculiarities. Then again, “ an outdated resident,” on the identical precept, is extra deeply impressed by the modifications which have been wrought within the life and facet of the town of his abode, because the days of his early recollections. To the customer the outdated is new, and the brand new is outdated; whereas to the resident the outdated is acquainted, and the brand new is unusual.

If the previous observer has the benefit of seeing issues from a extra hanging and picturesque perspective, the latter is nearer to truth and reality. Colonel White, writing in 1844, in his attention-grabbing e book, Three Years in   Constantinople, which such a reliable authority as Sir Henry Layard pronounced to be the most effective work on Turkish life, stated, that if a sure coverage had been pursued, “fifty years can’t elapse ere travellers will flock to Constantinople in seek for relics of Moslem establishments with as a lot eagerness as they now look for vestiges of Christian or Pagan antiquities. ” It could be an exaggeration to say that this prophecy has been actually fulfilled.

However occasions have verified its forecast to such an extent, that one is tempted to imagine the prophet’s mantle, and predict that Colonel White’s phrases will come to cross within the subsequent half-century. At any price, if the world right here has moved slowly, it has moved very far. The descriptions of Constantinople in such works as Miss Pardoe’s Metropolis of the Sultan, and Colonel White’s Three Years in Constantinople, appear to-day descriptions of one other metropolis.

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Among the many Turks and the Christian populations

Within the political state of affairs, within the matter of schooling each
among the many Turks and the Christian populations, the modifications are
merely monumental. That is, nevertheless, not the place to expatiate upon these
severe matters, though it’s only by their consideration that the greatness and
far-reaching penalties of the brand new state of issues will be correctly
appreciated. However take a look at the change within the matter of gown. The
place is now the number of costume, the place the brightness of color that made
the motion of the inhabitants always a procession in gala gown? As far as her
garb is worried, a Turkish lady to-day is a sere and withered leaf. She is sort
of a European girl, thinly disguised. And the place are the boys who moved
about, topped with turbans, and attired in lengthy, colored, flowing robes? You
meet them sometimes on the road, or see them gathered in regards to the
mosques, weary and tattered stragglers of generations of males, whose mien and
gait have been the look and movement of princes. Some one has mentioned that
the Turks dedicated a terrific mistake after they adopted the European gown;
for the change makes you suppose that they’ve ceased to be Orientals, and are
to be judged by European requirements in all respects. An excessive amount of
is subsequently anticipated of them. Definitely the change has not improved
their look. It has robbed them of that quiet dignity and commanding air which
imposed instant respect. The eagle is shorn of his plumes.

The Turkish pasha is now a shadow
of his former self

The Turkish pasha, as an example, is now a shadow of his former self. What
a grasp of males he appeared when seated on a high quality Arab horse and
glittering saddle-cloth, he rode slowly via the streets, accompanied by a
retinue of servants on foot, the gang making manner for him to go as if a king
glided by. What an incarnation of gnty he was when he floated on the Bosporus
in a caique of 5 pairs of oars, two servants squatting in entrance of him, with
folded palms, within the backside of the boat; his pipe-bearer, behind on the
poop, able to current him with a long-stemmed pipe of cherry or jasmine wooden,
surmounted by an amber mouthpiece, adorned with diamonds. With the
disappearance of such issues, there was a wise weakening of the awe which the
ruling race excited in the remainder of the inhabitants. If anybody needs to
expertise the autumn, so to talk, within the temperature of the sensation of
awe produced by the change from an Oriental to a European garb let him go to
the Museum of the Janissary Costumes. What terror these costumes should have
impressed! Or let him go to the Imperial Treasury within the Seraglio, and
stroll down the road of lay-figures attired within the costumes worn by
successive Sultans.