Would Cold War rivalries extend to Antarctica?

At a certain moment there were at least 10 permanent research stations on Antarctica. But whose law would apply? This question led to the establishment of the Antarctic Treaty, a set of international agreements established in 1961 which lead to the solution of the sovereignty issue in Antarctica.

Whose law applies?

By the early 1950s, territorial claims in Antarctica had become well established and most of the continent was subject to the sovereignty of at least one country. Some countries moved to establish a permanent presence – Australia, for example, established in 1954 the first permanent station south of the Antarctic Circle. Two years later there were at least 10 permanent stations and occupation of the continent was literally being cemented.

Whose law would apply to such developments? Such questions would need answering as some claims overlapped and at least two countries specifically rejected the sovereign claims on which national jurisdiction would be based. With growing interest in Antarctic research and increasing presence, this uncertainty needed resolution and various attempts were made to internationalise Antarctica.

Holding much of the 1957/58 International Geophysical Year (IGY) in Antarctica helped bring the issues to a head. In Antarctica IGY participants agreed to temporarily set aside jurisdictional problems so that the research could proceed without distraction. Scientists would be free to travel anywhere in Antarctica without seeking permission. This proved remarkably successful.

After IGY it became clear that territorial aspirations and political arguments might hinder the long term development of research in Antarctica. Would Cold War rivalries extend to Antarctica? A way had to be found to maintain the harmony achieved during IGY, without taking anything away from the interests of nations already there. In 1958 the US proposed that the 12 nations in Antarctica during the IGY negotiate a regime for long-term Antarctic cooperation.

This led quickly to the adoption in December 1959 of the Antarctic Treaty, which entered into force on 23 June 1961.

Who was Pablo Escobar?

One of the most infamous drug lords in history, Pablo Escobar was the kingpin of Colombia’s Medellin Cartel, a colossal cocaine syndicate which he reigned over with an iron fist and loaded gun throughout the 1980s. At the height of his criminal career (which you can see more about here), he was one of the world’s richest criminals and used to rake in an estimated USD 20 billion a year. It is also estimated that 80% of the cocaine smuggled into the US, during his entire reign, was supplied by his cartel.

So powerful was he at the height of his glory that he was able to challenge the government on many fronts and even avoided an extradition attempt by the US government. In his native Colombia, Escobar is still very much a polarizing figure. On the one hand, he was feared as a psychopathic killer of enemies but on the other, he was the most beloved and generous Robin Hood the poor ever had in their corner. No matter what outsiders think of Escobar, and even 20-odd years after his grandiose demise, his story is still very much embedded into the psyche of Colombians.

Escobar at the height of his reign and, right, as portrayed in the Netflix show, Narcos

Here are some mind-boggling facts about Pablo Escobar:

Escobar built a rather extravagant estate in Puerto Triunfo, which included a private zoo with exotic animals – like hippos and giraffes – which he had imported from Africa

He is responsible for the death of at least 4,000 people, including over 1,000 members of the Colombian police, and over 100 judges who refused to ‘co-operate’

Escobar started his criminal career by dealing in stolen cars

During his last stint on the run from police, his daughter fell ill. To keep the house warm and aid in her recovery, it is estimated Escobar burnt about US$2 million of cash in his fireplace

The pilots who flew his cocaine-filled planes to and fro the United States were paid, on average, US$500,000 a day

Escobar offered to wipe out the country’s debt (about US$10 billion) in exchange for the government’s protection against US extradition

Between 1987 and 1994, he was included in Forbes’ billionaire list as one of the world’s richest people

Upon seizing his estate, the Colombian government took ownership of 141 private properties, 32 yachts, 142 private planes and 2 submarines

Escobar’s mind-boggling wealth was so immense that he couldn’t launder all of it in a timely manner. He resorted to stashing millions of US bills in the walls of his properties and burying mind-boggling amount underground in suitcases. Every year, he had to account for a 10% loss – equivalent to US$2 billion – as the bills deteriorated or were eaten by rats. This didn’t seem to bother him much

Escobar routinely handed out money to the poor of Medellin, built a public zoo as well as housing for the underprivileged and playgrounds for kids

 

Who should I book Insurance with?

When it comes to purchasing insurance for expeditions to Antarctica, we recommend going with well-established insurers with commendable reputations. Personal recommendation from friends or family members who have been bodes well, but so does surfing the web for forums on the subjects. These Tripadvisor and Whirlpool forums, for example, contain a lot of useful info as travellers share their personal experiences and information they have gathered. You can use an online insurance calculator (like compare the market ) to swiftly compare quotes, before delving deeper into the fine print of each policy. At the very least, you’ll see which companies deal with Antarctica expeditions, so you can research each one individually. Your country of residence will play a big part in which insurance covers are suitable, so make sure to include your country of origin, as well as age and medical conditions.

Another word of warning here: many Antarctica insurance policies will claim to offer you cover which runs in the millions of dollars for medical emergencies, and the tens of thousands for loss of personal belongings (forgot to consider insuring your expensive camera gear? It’s never too late!) yet it’s only upon studying the fine print that you discover endless exclusions, such as for pre-existing conditions or purchase of second-hand goods. We really can’t stress enough how important it is to know exactly what insurance cover you’re purchasing.

Ask your tour operator – Of course, all tour operators dealing with expeditions to Antarctica will have their preferred insurers, companies they have used for many years, whom they trust wholeheartedly. Should you still be confused by the end of your search, and be none the wiser, do trust your tour operator. If they are responsible, professional and experienced in Antarctica voyages, they’ll be working with an insurance company to match.

Here at Chimu Adventurers, we are your Antarctica experts (not insurance experts!) but we will endeavour to help you find the insurance cover which suits you best. We work with several travel insurance companies that will cover you for your Antarctica expedition, depending on your circumstances. For a consultation, contact our experienced staff today.

If you are looking at another policy which you have found yourself, please speak to our destination specialists to see if the cover is sufficient for the cruise or Antarctic experience you are taking. We would also be more than happy to find you an insurance cover policy, even if you’re not traveling to Antarctica with us!

Booking a trip to Antarctica can be daunting, but it really doesn’t have to be – the right insurance cover will ensure the only thing you have to worry about, as you set off to explore the icy wonders of this incredible continent, is just how many unforgettable experiences you’ll have and memories you’ll bring home. The right insurance will take care of all the rest.

 

What’s the wildlife scene like in the Arctic?

Given that the Arctic is not an island/continent, like Antarctica, the wildlife here is free to roam about, most animals migrating south during the harshest winter months and then meandering back north as ice melts and temperatures rise.

A few tough creatures, like polar bears and seals, spend the winter on pack ice floating north of the Arctic circle, the former trying to catch the latter and the latter trying to eat fish before the former catches up. Yet polar bears are solitary animals and catching a glimpse of one is hard enough in Summer so the best course of action, what many expedition cruises aim, is to actually follow the colonies of seals. Sometimes, the best way to see an elusive predator is to first find his favourite prey.

Aside from the two most iconic Arctic animals, the collective wildlife scene this far north is simply sensational. Arctic expeditions in Summer are, primarily, wildlife-spotting endeavours with the idyllic conditions of the months between May and October ensuring the best chances of spotting polar and grizzly bears, whales, walruses, caribou, reindeer, no less than five species of seals, ermine, puffins and almost 200 other distinct species of birds. Where in the Arctic you head to will determine which of these regional animals you’re likely to see.

Arctic expeditions can see you explore the northernmost reaches of Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Canada and Russia. The most popular springboards are undoubtedly Spitsbergen – Norway (an archipelago revered for being a polar bear crèche), Ottawa – Canada (for visits to both Canada and Greenland Arctic) and Reykjavik- Iceland (for stunning cruises between Iceland and Greenland and explorations of fjords on both sides).

Each of these three Arctic hubs offers multiple options, both for cruising and lodge-based adventures and, given the ease of access, all are easy enough to include on a longer and more comprehensive retirement journey.

Not to be forgotten is the Russian High Arctic, the lesser-known and arguably most breathtaking destination of them all. There’s something about the extra effort (and expense) needed to join a Russian Arctic expedition that sets this destination apart from all the others.

 

What should I be covered for visit to Antarctica

Planning a visit to Antarctica is an exhilarating process yet although choosing the right insurance cover for your trip isn’t nearly as glamorous as choosing which cruise ship or flight option you’ll take, it is just as important. If not more so.

Frequent travellers attest to insurance being one of the most important components of any trip, be it to the country next door or, in this case, to the end of the world. And as you consider visiting the most remote, hard to reach and inhospitable place on earth, the right insurance cover plays an even bigger role. Evacuations from Antarctica over the last few years have highlighted just how imperative it is to be fully covered for all eventualities this far south. Because as exciting as a visit to Antarctica may well be, you do want to remember it for all the right reasons. An expedition to Antarctica is, for many, a once-in-a-lifetime experience. It’s essential to protect your investment, and yourself, with the right insurance policy.

We’ve compiled this handy guide about the best Antarctica travel insurance for Australians, to better help you choose the right cover for your trip.

Is a travel insurance Mandatory when visiting Antarctica?

While it’s technically not mandatory to buy insurance cover when visiting Antarctica, you’ll be hard-pressed to find a single responsible tour operator who doesn’t demand it. And for very good reason.

Due to the remoteness of the destination, medical attention and evacuations are exorbitantly expensive, so much so that many – operators and past guests alike – deem it ‘insanity’ not to purchase insurance cover when visiting Antarctica, especially when one is investing large sums of travel-funds to travel there in the first place.

For the great majority of Antarctica tour operators, insurance is indeed mandatory, although the level of cover demanded can vary a great deal. This is when it pays to read the fine print when booking your expedition so that you’re fully aware of what kind of cover you are required to have. If you’re not requested to have suitable insurance at the time of booking, it’s highly advisable to contact your travel agent immediately and ensure that everything is in order.

When booking travel insurance for Antarctica, make sure you are covered from the moment of purchase, thus covering yourself for a possible cancellation of your trip. It is always wise to purchase insurance at the same time as booking your trip – just in case any unforeseen circumstances stop you from travelling.

Any travel insurance policy you purchase should cover you for accidents, emergency evacuation, sickness, loss of baggage and belongings, as well as alterations to your pre-booked travel plans due to local issues, and disruption to travel.

Bad weather – When undertaking an expedition to Antarctica, there will be many things that are outside your control, and insurance should cover you accordingly. They say that weather cares for no man and this is definitely true in this part of the world. Trip delays and unforeseen disruptions are not uncommon in Antarctica – mainly due to weather and sea conditions – so a solid insurance policy which covers bad weather is an absolute must.

The Climate in Antarctica

The Climate in Antarctica makes the continent the way it is. Over 15 million years it has transformed rocky lands with forests and grasslands into a continent of ice. In years to come, the Climate in Antarctica will again radically transform it.

For many millions of years, when Antarctica formed part of a supercontinent called Gondwana, the land around the South Pole was warm enough to support many plant and animal communities. Fossilised leaves of southern beech trees have been found within 300 km of the Pole.

Two major events brought about the changes:

Gondwana broke apart

• Gondwana began to break up about 180 million years ago.
• Antarctica began to take on its modern form when South America and Australia broke away, between 80 million and 40 million years ago.
• The final separation allowed ocean waters driven by relentless westerly winds to flow right around the southern part of the world.
• The Antarctic Circumpolar Current, as we now know it, cooled the seas around Antarctica.

CO2 levels dropped

• At the same time, various natural processes were causing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere to drop, very slowly.
• During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) around 56 million years ago, Earth suddenly heated to 6 deg. C warmer than today, probably a result of rapid release of carbon dioxide by very large numbers of volcanoes.
• Then, atmospheric carbon dioxide was thousands of parts per million, but over millions of years it dropped to a few hundred parts per million.

Why is there snow in Antarctica?

These two developments caused Antarctica to become so cold that snow stayed on the ground year-round, building over many thousands of years into an ice sheet thousands of metres thick which drove nearly all land-based species into extinction. That process first started around 34 million years ago.

 

Ten million years later Antarctica lost its ice cover as Earth warmed again, probably because large numbers of active volcanoes raised the carbon dioxide level. Then another decline in carbon dioxide caused the ice sheet to form again about 15 million years ago. It’s stayed there ever since.

Antarctic Ice Sheets

Throughout the Quaternary, the present geological period which began about 2.6 million years ago, Earth has been cooler than it’s been for at least 280 million years and possibly much longer. Climate in Antarctica changed and it ensured the Antarctic ice sheet to remained in place even during the warmest (interglacial) times of these “ice ages”, such as today.

In the depths of each ice age, ice sheets have blanketed large swathes of Europe and Asia, North and South America and Australia. Over all that time – including the whole time that humans and their near-ancestors have walked on the planet – Earth’s average temperature didn’t rise above where it is today, kept in check by carbon dioxide levels between 180 and 300 parts per million. And the great Antarctic ice sheet – 14 million km2 in area and averaging 2 km thick – remained in place.

The Antarctic Treaty

Compared to other international agreements the Treaty is remarkably short – just 14 articles. But it conveys powerful principles and at its core is Article IV, an elegant solution to the sovereignty issue.

During the life of the Treaty it precludes new or enlarged claims and prevents activities from enhancing or detracting from existing claims. It thus holds the status quo by protecting the interests of all Parties: those who made sovereign claims, those who reserved the right to claim, and those who reject claims completely. Its simplicity is that it did not set aside the claims – it just sets aside arguments about them. This is one reason why the continent has never seen war.

The Treaty is founded on the principle in its opening paragraph – that it is in the interests of world that the region be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and that Antarctica should never be the scene or object of international discord. It prohibits military manoeuvres, weapons testing and disposing of nuclear waste.

The Treaty applies to the area south of 60°South and thus covers a vast region. Importantly, the Treaty is as much about rights as it is about obligations. For example, it is a Party’s right to undertake research anywhere they like in Antarctica and have scientific results made freely available. In addition, at any time Parties can inspect the activities and stations of others. In this sense it became the world’s first armaments inspection regime, although in practice inspections are used mainly for environmental compliance.

Such a short Treaty could not possibly cover all the activities that needed governing. It therefore provided for Parties to meet and adopt measures to advance the scope of the Treaty regime. These meetings comprise the original 12 Parties to the Treaty, plus states that have subsequently acceded to the Treaty.

There are now 53 Parties, of which 29 are the so-called Consultative Parties entitled to participate in decision-making. This provides an additional and potentially far-reaching right – to initiate significant change in the way the Treaty approaches the region’s management. The consultative meetings have thus been used to launch discussions leading to entirely new agreements, including:

Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals 1978

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources 1980

Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities 1988 (this convention is unlikely to enter into force – article on Mining in Antarctica)

 

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty 1991

A large number of Measures, Decisions and Resolutions have also bee agreed on a very wide of subjects. Together with the various institutions associated with the Treaty (including the Committee for Environmental Protection, the Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs, and other affiliated organisations) these measures comprise what is now known as the Antarctic Treaty System. They address issues such as environmental protection, tourism management, exchange of information, international cooperation and so on.

Such decisions are made at the annual Consultative Meetings, the hosting of which rotates between the Parties. Because of the growing number of Parties it can be many years between hosting a meeting (for example, Australia hosted the first meeting in 1961, the 12th in 1983 and the 35th in 2012).

To ensure consistency, support for the meetings is provided by a Secretariat which has its international staff and headquarters in Buenos Aires. Meetings are conducted in four languages and decisions are taken by consensus – this does not necessarily mean that everyone agrees, but it does mean that no one formally objects.

Of course, it is not compulsory for a nation to join the Treaty. The reality is, however, that any nation active in Antarctica joins the Treaty as it is seen to provide the best way managing the region and membership ensures mutual support in research, the sharing of logistics and operational costs, and cooperation in the case of emergencies.

Like any other international agreement it could be reviewed. Article XII allows for a review conference to be called after 30 years (ie: from 1991). No Party has called for a review and the Treaty continues to grow.

The signs are that the Treaty will survive for many decades, maybe forever. It is hard to image that an alternative regime that is as effective could be negotiated – many would argue that the strength of the Treaty lies in its simplicity, the fact that it so neatly sidesteps the most controversial issues, and that the Treaty system can continue to adapt.

It is perhaps ironic that the one issue which triggered the Treaty in the first place – the question of exercise of national jurisdiction – has never been discussed at a Treaty meeting even though Article IX of the Treaty specifically provides for that discussion. As much as anything, this demonstrates the insight of the original negotiators of the Treaty and the Treaty’s enduring effectiveness in achieving harmony in Antarctic affairs.

 

If your itinerary involves departing from destinations in Argentina

Activities – Considering there’s a tonne of fun stuff you can do in Antarctica (just take a look at the 10 Best Things to Do in Antarctica), it pays to have insurance which covers you for all the fantastic additional activities you can indulge in, including camping, kayaking, SCUBA diving and more. This is arguably the most important aspect of your insurance policy: make sure you know exactly what you’re covered for.

Interestingly enough, you’ll discover that many insurers will rarely openly list all these kinds of extra-curricular activities, so it is up to you to investigate your policy thoroughly, and ascertain if your intended activities are covered. And be warned: some Antarctica travel insurance policies stop covering you the moment you disembark your expedition cruise ship. So look for one that doesn’t.

Specific destinations: It’s important to find a policy that will cover all your intended destinations in Antarctica. Some policies, for example, may not cover for travels further south than the Antarctic circle, so if travelling to East Antarctica or undertaking a Polar Circle expedition, you’ll need to find a policy which will cover those too.

Emergency evacuation – If there’s one emergency you really ought to be covered for, it would have to be evacuation and repatriation back home. From the furthest reaches of Antarctica, the difficulty and expense of such a (still rare) event carries mind-boggling costs.

For Australians, it’s recommended that the cover for evacuation and repatriation amount to no less than AUD $1,000,000. Many operators will demand a policy with unlimited coverage for emergency evacuation.

Monetary level of cover – This is a highly subjective topic, although tour operators and ships do dictate a minimum amount of cover, both for delays and evacuation insurance. The amount for which you are required to have cover is something you can enquire at time of booking, although what you should choose to have can indeed be higher.

As an example: imagine your trip is delayed at port by quite a few days, so many in fact, that you must now return home due to time restraints. A standard ‘trip delay’ payout on many policies could well be only AUD $500…but you certainly wouldn’t be happy with that if you’ve forked out AUD $25,000 for the trip. Insurance policies for Antarctica expeditions are standardised, so it’s up to you to find a level of cover that you’re comfortable accepting, aside from the mandatory amounts dictated by your tour operator.

Transit – If your itinerary involves departing from destinations in Argentina, The Falkland Islands Uruguay, or Chile, you must ensure you are covered whilst transiting to your cruise/flight of choice. Also please note that if you are an Australian booking an Antarctic cruise from Australia, your regular health insurance is not enough! You also need to have evacuation insurance and a specific policy that will cover you for all the above scenarios.

 

Activities in Antarctica

Antarctica, the continent where the silence is deafening and where emptiness is fills the scenery, is known as a great destination to spot a plethora of wildlife such as great penguin colonies, sleepy seals or different types of whales. But beside spotting the wildlife on Antarctica, there are many other Activities in Antarctica that can be done to make an Antarctica expedition into a truly unforgettable experience.

One of the  Activities in Antarctica on any expedition will include multiple shore excursions. Your expedition team will be sure to make the most of opportunities for on-shore excursions so that you can spend time exploring one of nature’s most spectacular wonderlands! You will even be able to visit scientific research stations and interact with the local communities.

Zodiac Excursions

Your ship is equipped with a fleet of Zodiacs, which provide a safe and efficient way to cruise the Antarctic waters.

Sea Kayaking

Paddle your way through the tranquil waters of the Antarctic with a small group of sea kayakers, no matter your level of fitness. All equipment is provided and an experienced guide leads you the whole way. This  is one of the most popular optional extra Activities in Antarctica  so be sure to reserve your place.

Cross-Country Skiing

Take in the unbeatable scenery of Antarctica’s inner remote regions while skiing off the beaten track! You don’t have to be a professional but this optional extra requires some previous experience.

Diving

Take the plunge and explore the Antarctic underworld with a scuba dive – these dives allow you to observe the Antarctic shelf below sea level. Please note that this optional extra requires you to hold an advanced diving certificate and suitable dry suit experience. Limited vessels offer diving in Antarctica.

Camping

Why not spend a night ashore the Antarctic shelf? Camping on the ice is an optional extra available on several voyages, however, places are limited so be sure to reserve your place at the time of booking. All camping gear is provided.

Mountaineering

For the fun and adventurous, why not take an exciting climb to the peak of an Antarctic mountain? Mountaineering is available on selected voyages and requires a basic level of fitness.

Bird and Wildlife Watching

Every direction you look during your Antarctic voyage offers a new opportunity for bird and wildlife watching. The type of wildlife you come across will depend on the voyage you take and the time of year.

Hiking

These tours lead you to amazing vantage points and allow even closer interaction with local wildlife, so don’t forget your camera! This optional extra is available for all levels of fitness and interests.

Photography

Capture the Antarctic wonderland at its most beautiful with a guided photography tour that caters to all levels of photographers. This optional extra includes several workshops, presentations and excursions – please note that this activity requires you to bring your own camera.